nditions, everlasting uncertainty and agitation distinurgeois epoch from all earlier ones. All fixed, fast-frozen th their train of ancient and venerable prejudices and e swept away, all new-formed ones become antiquated can ossify. All that is solid melts into air, all that is aned, and man is at last compelled to face with sober al conditions of life and his relations with his kind.

of a constantly expanding market for its products chases sie over the whole surface of the globe. It must nestle settle everywhere, establish connections everywhere. geoisie has, through its exploitation of the world market, nopolitan character to production and consumption in y. To the great chagrin of reactionists, it has drawn he feet of industry the national ground on which it stood. olished national industries have been destroyed or are lestroyed. They are dislodged by new industries, whose becomes a life-and-death question for all civilized naustries that no longer work up indigenous raw material, terial drawn from the remotest zones; industries whose consumed, not only at home, but in every quarter of the lace of the old wants, satisfied by the productions of the find new wants, requiring for their satisfaction the prodant lands and climes. In place of the old local and usion and self-sufficiency, we have intercourse in every iversal interdependence of nations. And as in material, intellectual production. The intellectual creations of ations become common property. National one-sidedness mindedness become more and more impossible, and from us national and local literatures there arises a world

I creates a woria arter its own image.

The bourgeoisie has subjected the country to the rule o owns. It has created enormous cities, has greatly increase rban population as compared with the rural, and has thus re considerable part of the population from the idiocy of rura ust as it has made the country dependent on the towns, so i ade barbarian and semi-barbarian countries dependent or vilized ones, nations of peasants on nations of bourgeois, the n the West.

The bourgeoisie keeps more and more doing away with the red state of the population, of the means of production, a operty. It has agglomerated population, centralized mea oduction, and has concentrated property in a few hands. cessary consequence of this was political centralization. ndent, or but loosely connected provinces, with separate inte vs, governments, and systems of taxation, became lumped tog one nation, with one government, one code of laws, one nat ss interest, one frontier, and one customs tariff.

The bourgeoisie, during its rule of scarce one hundred years ated more massive and more colossal productive forces than preceding generations together. Subjection of nature's f man, machinery, application of chemistry to industry and ture, steam navigation, railways, electric telegraphs, cleari ole continents for cultivation, canalization of rivers, whole po ns conjured out of the ground—what earlier century had e sentiment that such productive forces slumbered in the la ial labor?

We see, then, [that] the means of production and of exchang >se foundation the bourgeoisie built itself up were generat Hal society. At a certain stage in the development of these m production and of exchange, the conditions under which f

developed productive forces; they became so many fett had to burst asunder; they were burst asunder.

Into their places stepped free competition, accompa social and political constitution adapted to it, and by the and political sway of the bourgeois class.

V. A similar movement is going on before our own eyes bourgeois society, with its relations of production, of exc of property, a society that has conjured up such giganti production and of exchange, is like the sorcerer who is no to control the powers of the nether world whom he has ca his spells. For many a decade past the history of industry merce is but the history of the revolt of modern produc against modern conditions of production, against the pro tions that are the conditions for the existence of the bour of its rule. It is enough to mention the commercial cris their periodical return put on its trial, each time more thr the existence of the entire bourgeois society. In these cri part, not only of the existing products, but also of the created productive forces, are periodically destroyed. In t there breaks out an epidemic that, in all earlier epochs, v seemed an absurdity- the epidemic of overproduction suddenly finds itself put back into a state of momentary it appears as if a famine, a universal war of devastation, the supply of every means of subsistence; industry and seem to be destroyed; and why? Because there is too mu tion, too much means of subsistence, too much industry, commerce. The productive forces at the disposal of society tend to further the development of the conditions of bour erty; on the contrary, they have become too powerful for ditions by which they are fettered, and so soon as they these fetters, they bring disorder into the whole of bourge endanger the existence of bourgeois property. The co bourgeois society are too narrow to comprise the wealth them. And how does the bourgeoisie get over these crise one hand, by enforced destruction of a mass of productive the other, by the conquest of new markets and by the mor exploitation of the old ones. That is to say, by paving t

eloped, a class of laborers who live only so long as they find v nd who find work only so long as their labor increases cap hese laborers, who must sell themselves piecemeal, are a com y, like every other article of commerce, and are consequently exp all the vicissitudes of competition, to all the fluctuations of arket.

Owing to the extensive use of machinery and to division of la e work of the proletarians has lost all individual character, and, quently, all charm for the workman. He becomes an appenda e machine, and it is only the most simple, most monotonous, ost easily acquired knack that is required of him. Hence, the production of a workman is restricted, almost entirely, to the m subsistance that he requires for his maintenance and for the p tion of his race. But the price of a commodity, and also of l equal to its cost of production. In proportion, therefore, as ulsiveness of the work increases, the wage decreases. Nay proportion as the use of machinery and division of labor incre the same proportion the burden of toil also increases, whethe longation of the working hours, by increase of the work en given time, or by increased speed of the machinery, etc. Modern industry has converted the little workshop of the p al master into the great factory of the industrial capitalist. M aborers, crowded into the factory, are organized like soldiers ates of the industrial army, they are placed under the com perfect hierarchy of officers and sergeants. Not only are slaves of the bourgeois class, and of the bourgeois State, the y and hourly enslaved by the machine, by the overlooker, ve all, by the individual bourgeois manufacturer himself. e openly this despotism proclaims gain to be its end and aim e petty, the more hateful, and the more embittering it is. The less the skill and exertion or strength implied in manual 1

working class. All are instruments of labor, more or l to use, according to their age and sex.

No sooner is the exploitation of the laborer by the r so far at an end that he receives his wages in cash, th upon by the other portions of the bourgeoisie - the 1 shopkeeper, the pawnbroker, etc.

The lower strata of the middle class - the small 1 shopkeepers, and retired tradesmen generally, the ha and peasants all these sink gradually into the prolet because their diminutive capital does not suffice for which modern industry is carried on and is swamped in tion with the large capitalists, partly because their spe is rendered worthless by new methods of production. T letariat is recruited from all classes of the population.

VII. The proletariat goes through various stages of d With its birth begins its struggle with the bourgeoisie. contest is carried on by individual laborers, then by the of a factory, then by the operatives of one trade, in against the individual bourgeois who directly exploits t direct their attacks, not against the bourgeois condition tion, but against the instruments of production thems destroy imported wares that compete with their labor, to pieces machinery, they set factories ablaze, they seek t force the vanished status of the workman of the Middle

At this stage the laborers still form an incoherent ma over the whole country, and broken up by their mut tion. If anywhere they unite to form more compact b not yet the consequence of their own active union, but of the bourgeoisie, which class, in order to attain its o ends, is compelled to set the whole proletariat in mo moreover yet, for a time, able to do so. At this stage, t proletarians do not fight their enemies, but the enem enemies, the remnants of absolute monarchy, the land non-industrial bourgeois, the petty bourgeoisie. Thu historical movement is concentrated in the hands of the every victory so obtained is a victory for the bourgeoisi

VIII. But with the development of industry the pr